49 results
DRAGON-Data: a platform and protocol for integrating genomic and phenotypic data across large psychiatric cohorts
- Amy J. Lynham, Sarah Knott, Jack F. G. Underwood, Leon Hubbard, Sharifah S. Agha, Jonathan I. Bisson, Marianne B. M. van den Bree, Samuel J. R. A. Chawner, Nicholas Craddock, Michael O'Donovan, Ian R. Jones, George Kirov, Kate Langley, Joanna Martin, Frances Rice, Neil P. Roberts, Anita Thapar, Richard Anney, Michael J. Owen, Jeremy Hall, Antonio F. Pardiñas, James T. R. Walters
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- BJPsych Open / Volume 9 / Issue 2 / March 2023
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- 08 February 2023, e32
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Background
Current psychiatric diagnoses, although heritable, have not been clearly mapped onto distinct underlying pathogenic processes. The same symptoms often occur in multiple disorders, and a substantial proportion of both genetic and environmental risk factors are shared across disorders. However, the relationship between shared symptoms and shared genetic liability is still poorly understood.
AimsWell-characterised, cross-disorder samples are needed to investigate this matter, but few currently exist. Our aim is to develop procedures to purposely curate and aggregate genotypic and phenotypic data in psychiatric research.
MethodAs part of the Cardiff MRC Mental Health Data Pathfinder initiative, we have curated and harmonised phenotypic and genetic information from 15 studies to create a new data repository, DRAGON-Data. To date, DRAGON-Data includes over 45 000 individuals: adults and children with neurodevelopmental or psychiatric diagnoses, affected probands within collected families and individuals who carry a known neurodevelopmental risk copy number variant.
ResultsWe have processed the available phenotype information to derive core variables that can be reliably analysed across groups. In addition, all data-sets with genotype information have undergone rigorous quality control, imputation, copy number variant calling and polygenic score generation.
ConclusionsDRAGON-Data combines genetic and non-genetic information, and is available as a resource for research across traditional psychiatric diagnostic categories. Algorithms and pipelines used for data harmonisation are currently publicly available for the scientific community, and an appropriate data-sharing protocol will be developed as part of ongoing projects (DATAMIND) in partnership with Health Data Research UK.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. 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Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. 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Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
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Contributors
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- By Aakash Agarwala, Linda S. Aglio, Rae M. Allain, Paul D. Allen, Houman Amirfarzan, Yasodananda Kumar Areti, Amit Asopa, Edwin G. Avery, Patricia R. Bachiller, Angela M. Bader, Rana Badr, Sibinka Bajic, David J. Baker, Sheila R. Barnett, Rena Beckerly, Lorenzo Berra, Walter Bethune, Sascha S. Beutler, Tarun Bhalla, Edward A. Bittner, Jonathan D. Bloom, Alina V. Bodas, Lina M. Bolanos-Diaz, Ruma R. Bose, Jan Boublik, John P. Broadnax, Jason C. Brookman, Meredith R. Brooks, Roland Brusseau, Ethan O. Bryson, Linda A. Bulich, Kenji Butterfield, William R. Camann, Denise M. Chan, Theresa S. Chang, Jonathan E. Charnin, Mark Chrostowski, Fred Cobey, Adam B. Collins, Mercedes A. Concepcion, Christopher W. Connor, Bronwyn Cooper, Jeffrey B. Cooper, Martha Cordoba-Amorocho, Stephen B. Corn, Darin J. Correll, Gregory J. Crosby, Lisa J. Crossley, Deborah J. Culley, Tomas Cvrk, Michael N. D'Ambra, Michael Decker, Daniel F. Dedrick, Mark Dershwitz, Francis X. Dillon, Pradeep Dinakar, Alimorad G. Djalali, D. John Doyle, Lambertus Drop, Ian F. Dunn, Theodore E. Dushane, Sunil Eappen, Thomas Edrich, Jesse M. Ehrenfeld, Jason M. Erlich, Lucinda L. Everett, Elliott S. Farber, Khaldoun Faris, Eddy M. Feliz, Massimo Ferrigno, Richard S. Field, Michael G. Fitzsimons, Hugh L. Flanagan Jr., Vladimir Formanek, Amanda A. Fox, John A. Fox, Gyorgy Frendl, Tanja S. Frey, Samuel M. Galvagno Jr., Edward R. Garcia, Jonathan D. Gates, Cosmin Gauran, Brian J. Gelfand, Simon Gelman, Alexander C. Gerhart, Peter Gerner, Omid Ghalambor, Christopher J. Gilligan, Christian D. Gonzalez, Noah E. Gordon, William B. Gormley, Thomas J. Graetz, Wendy L. Gross, Amit Gupta, James P. Hardy, Seetharaman Hariharan, Miriam Harnett, Philip M. Hartigan, Joaquim M. Havens, Bishr Haydar, Stephen O. Heard, James L. Helstrom, David L. Hepner, McCallum R. Hoyt, Robert N. Jamison, Karinne Jervis, Stephanie B. Jones, Swaminathan Karthik, Richard M. Kaufman, Shubjeet Kaur, Lee A. Kearse Jr., John C. Keel, Scott D. Kelley, Albert H. Kim, Amy L. Kim, Grace Y. Kim, Robert J. Klickovich, Robert M. Knapp, Bhavani S. Kodali, Rahul Koka, Alina Lazar, Laura H. Leduc, Stanley Leeson, Lisa R. Leffert, Scott A. LeGrand, Patricio Leyton, J. Lance Lichtor, John Lin, Alvaro A. Macias, Karan Madan, Sohail K. Mahboobi, Devi Mahendran, Christine Mai, Sayeed Malek, S. Rao Mallampati, Thomas J. Mancuso, Ramon Martin, Matthew C. Martinez, J. A. Jeevendra Martyn, Kai Matthes, Tommaso Mauri, Mary Ellen McCann, Shannon S. McKenna, Dennis J. McNicholl, Abdel-Kader Mehio, Thor C. Milland, Tonya L. K. Miller, John D. Mitchell, K. Annette Mizuguchi, Naila Moghul, David R. Moss, Ross J. Musumeci, Naveen Nathan, Ju-Mei Ng, Liem C. Nguyen, Ervant Nishanian, Martina Nowak, Ala Nozari, Michael Nurok, Arti Ori, Rafael A. Ortega, Amy J. Ortman, David Oxman, Arvind Palanisamy, Carlo Pancaro, Lisbeth Lopez Pappas, Benjamin Parish, Samuel Park, Deborah S. Pederson, Beverly K. Philip, James H. Philip, Silvia Pivi, Stephen D. Pratt, Douglas E. Raines, Stephen L. Ratcliff, James P. Rathmell, J. Taylor Reed, Elizabeth M. Rickerson, Selwyn O. Rogers Jr., Thomas M. Romanelli, William H. Rosenblatt, Carl E. Rosow, Edgar L. Ross, J. Victor Ryckman, Mônica M. Sá Rêgo, Nicholas Sadovnikoff, Warren S. Sandberg, Annette Y. Schure, B. Scott Segal, Navil F. Sethna, Swapneel K. Shah, Shaheen F. Shaikh, Fred E. Shapiro, Torin D. Shear, Prem S. Shekar, Stanton K. Shernan, Naomi Shimizu, Douglas C. Shook, Kamal K. Sikka, Pankaj K. Sikka, David A. Silver, Jeffrey H. Silverstein, Emily A. Singer, Ken Solt, Spiro G. Spanakis, Wolfgang Steudel, Matthias Stopfkuchen-Evans, Michael P. Storey, Gary R. Strichartz, Balachundhar Subramaniam, Wariya Sukhupragarn, John Summers, Shine Sun, Eswar Sundar, Sugantha Sundar, Neelakantan Sunder, Faraz Syed, Usha B. Tedrow, Nelson L. Thaemert, George P. Topulos, Lawrence C. Tsen, Richard D. Urman, Charles A. Vacanti, Francis X. Vacanti, Joshua C. Vacanti, Assia Valovska, Ivan T. Valovski, Mary Ann Vann, Susan Vassallo, Anasuya Vasudevan, Kamen V. Vlassakov, Gian Paolo Volpato, Essi M. Vulli, J. Matthias Walz, Jingping Wang, James F. Watkins, Maxwell Weinmann, Sharon L. Wetherall, Mallory Williams, Sarah H. Wiser, Zhiling Xiong, Warren M. Zapol, Jie Zhou
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Plate section
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Appendix 6 - Inflation table
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Acknowledgments
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References
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Engineering Strategies for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
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Controlling the level of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is a rapidly growing area of commercial activity. While debate continues both about the impact of greenhouse gas on climate and the role humans play in influencing its concentration, engineers are faced with less controversial questions of how to manage this uncertainty and how to control greenhouse gases at a minimum cost to society. This book gives a concise review of current knowledge required for engineers to develop strategies to help us manage and adapt to climate change. It has been developed from the author's graduate course in environmental engineering, and is written without technical jargon so as to be accessible to a wide range of students and policymakers who do not necessarily have scientific or engineering backgrounds. Appendices allow readers to calculate for themselves the impact of the various strategies, and the book contains student exercises and references for further reading.
1 - Economic costs of CO2 management
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Summary
It is generally believed that the reduction of net emissions of carbon dioxide will be achieved more efficiently with tradable carbon credits than without. The subject is treated at length in Freestone (2009) and will not be explored here. The argument is that those organisations that can reduce carbon dioxide emissions or provide carbon sinks more economically than others will sell these benefits to others at a lower cost than the second party could produce the benefit themselves. This is a classic free-market argument.
This is supported by conventional economic discussion. However, the externalities are often neglected or ‘wrongly’ valued, and many socially undesirable consequences come from applying simple free-market concepts. Engineers in the future will take more account of externalities.
Just as there are climate models that, with the aid of many assumptions, predict the change in the global climate, there are global economic models that try and predict the change in indices such as GDP. The assumptions underlying these models are as uncertain as, or even more uncertain than, in physical models of the atmosphere. We would particularly like to identify the fact that assumptions must be made about social behaviour in the future. Predicting the reaction of people in the future must be considered most challenging, especially when one notes the social changes in large countries such as Russia that have occurred over the last few years.
Preface
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Summary
Controlling the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is a rapidly growing new commercial activity that did not exist a decade ago. It is predicted by Stern (2007) to rise in value to US$500 000 000 000 per year by 2050. This new activity is founded on the recognition that the threat of rapid climate change is a concern for future generations. Engineers are needed to exercise their skills to deliver economic solutions to this pressing problem. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide trap heat in the atmosphere and their increasing levels threaten to bring about climate change. This is a global issue and its consequences are long term. At the same time, there is much uncertainty associated with a phenomenon that is not yet understood well enough to be reliably modelled.
Last century there was much political discussion on this topic, which culminated in the agreed text of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). With the UNFCCC entering into force in 1994, the control of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere became an engineering problem. While debate continues both about the impact of greenhouse gas on climate and the role humans play in influencing its concentration, the engineer is faced with the less controversial questions of how to manage the uncertainty and how to control greenhouse gases at the least cost to society. The modern engineer must address the concerns of the populace and will need to engage with the economist and the social scientist.
3 - Zero-emission technologies
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Summary
In the previous chapter we looked at the concept of increasing the efficiency with which fossil fuels were used to produce work. However, this increase in efficiency will need to be taken up at an unprecedented rate under most of the scenarios discussed in Chapter 1 in order to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. As an alternative, we could deploy technologies that emit near-zero greenhouse gas. This would also have the effect of reducing the carbon dioxide intensity.
About 20% of the world's primary energy at present comes from sources that emit no net carbon dioxide. Firewood is the largest component. Here carbon dioxide is extracted from the atmosphere by photosynthesis as the tree grows and is returned to the atmosphere during combustion. The primary source of energy for firewood is the sun, which radiates energy to the earth. The next most important low-emissions energy sources are nuclear energy and hydro-energy, which are about equal contributors to energy supply.
We need to recall the magnitude of the reduction in net carbon dioxide emissions required to stabilise the atmospheric concentration at some value. The emissions are shown in Figure 1.8. For example, if we assume the scenario IS92a is a business as usual scenario for the world without concern for greenhouse gas, then to achieve stabilisation of concentration at 550 ppm after 100years as per Figure 1.8, the world net emissions need to be held to about 9GtCyr−1 in 2030 and have a lower value thereafter.
6 - Increasing land sinks
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The previous chapter discussed the 70% of the globe covered by the ocean, and in this chapter we consider the remaining 30% that is land. While the terrestrial ecosystem provides less than a tenth of the carbon storage of the ocean, it is about as active on a seasonal basis in terms of carbon flux in and out of the atmosphere. The upper 1m of soil contains some 2000GtC, while the present land vegetation stores about 750GtC, of which about 300GtC is stored above ground in forests. These are large stores of carbon which can be both enhanced as an alternative sink for atmospheric carbon or mobilised (unintentionally) to produce additional emissions. Most of the fossil fuel that is being burned to produce the rising atmospheric carbon dioxide came from the land. Remember that we estimated the recoverable fossil-fuel reservoir as 7000GtC. Logging of the forests for land clearance, and other changes in land use, add to the carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere at a rate of 2GtC per year. Vegetation grown for food is cycled once or twice a year and so does not hold much of the mobile carbon. In this chapter we will look at the three approaches to land storage of carbon.
The most direct approach is to pump compressed carbon dioxide into depleted oil and gas wells and this is already done for the purpose of recovering more oil. Aquifers can also be used.
Appendix 3 - The Kyoto Protocol
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The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialised countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These amount to an average of 5% against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008–2012.
The major distinction between the Protocol and the Convention is that, while the Convention encouraged industrialised countries to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions, the Protocol commits them to do so.
Recognising that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’.
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997, and entered into force on 16 February 2005. To date, 182 Parties of the Convention have ratified its Protocol. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh in 2001, and are called the ‘Marrakesh Accords’.
The Kyoto mechanisms
Under the Treaty, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Kyoto Protocol offers them an additional means of meeting their targets by way of three international market-based mechanisms.
Appendices
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Appendix 5 - Table of units
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Appendix 4 - Emission by Annex B countries
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Contents
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5 - Ocean sequestration
- Ian S. F. Jones, University of Sydney
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- Book:
- Engineering Strategies for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
- Published online:
- 07 September 2011
- Print publication:
- 12 May 2011, pp 72-105
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Summary
The threat of rapid climate change due to greenhouse gas build-up in the atmosphere is the result of the sources of greenhouse gas to the atmosphere exceeding the sinks. The transformation of CO2 in the atmosphere is very slow. In the previous chapter we considered how to change the radiative balance by adjusting the energy flux provided by the sun. We should now turn to examining the issues in using the ocean as a sink of carbon. Already the total mobile carbon in the oceanic waters is of the order of 40000GtC, much greater than the 2200GtC on the land. The carbon in the ocean is stored mostly as bicarbonate, and the total dissolved inorganic carbon has a concentration of order 2000μmol kg−1.
Carbon is cycled by the marine planktonic ecosystem. Houghton et al. (1996), in the second assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, concluded that if there were changes in the oceanic plankton, there is a large potential for the biological pump to influence CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere.
Carbon is also cycling in and out of the ocean as a result of the vertical circulation in the large ocean basins bringing water to the surface with a different partial pressure to that of the atmosphere above.
2 - Changing energy efficiency
- Ian S. F. Jones, University of Sydney
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- Book:
- Engineering Strategies for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
- Published online:
- 07 September 2011
- Print publication:
- 12 May 2011, pp 25-41
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Summary
Changing carbon dioxide intensity
In the previous chapter we saw how business as usual scenarios lead to a rapid increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. We saw how GDP per person and population combines with CO2 intensity to give the total emissions to the atmosphere. The population momentum that comes from past high fertility and the falling mortality makes it difficult for policies to have a short-term impact on population. However, there are some examples such as China, which has changed the rate of increase of its population through regulations known as the one-child policy. Population is a field not usually in the domain where engineers practice. Reducing population growth might be a cost-effective way of managing greenhouse gas, as well as addressing a number of other challenges facing the world, but we will not pursue it further. Readers are referred to Birdsall (1994) for a discussion of population momentum.
The first term, involving the GDP per person, is not one we would advocate reducing to control greenhouse gas emissions. Some assert that the people living in the developed nations consume too much and so have too high a GDP. They are profligate consumers! No-one sensible advocates that the poorest reduce the GDP per person. Would a much fairer distribution of wealth help all to have an acceptable level of GDP with no-one living in poverty? Could the global GDP then be lower than at present and so reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases?
4 - Geoengineering the climate
- Ian S. F. Jones, University of Sydney
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- Book:
- Engineering Strategies for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
- Published online:
- 07 September 2011
- Print publication:
- 12 May 2011, pp 59-71
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Summary
In the previous chapter we considered approaches to providing energy with near-zero emissions of carbon dioxide. While this may be technically possible, there are impediments to the adoption of these concepts. Some are political, some are economic and some are resistance to change. The alternative approach is to accept the rise in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere due to continuing emissions of carbon dioxide, and to modify some other components of the climate system to maintain a desirable climate. This is known as geoengineering – engineering on a global scale. It implies exerting control over nature, a concept that comes more naturally to engineers than to others with different cultures.
Five hundred years ago, humans had made only a small dint on the global ecosystem. The land biomass was presumably in steady state, so that on the average it neither stored carbon, nor released it to the atmosphere. Then came land clearing for agriculture, with the consequent release of carbon dioxide. As the CO2 level started to rise with the Industrial Revolution, carbon flowed from the atmosphere to the sea because of Henry's Law. The ocean sink is currently estimated at 1–2GtCyr−1. One way to make this estimate is to measure the carbon dioxide partial pressure difference between the atmosphere and the ocean surface layer and use this in a flux calculation. This topic is discussed in Chapter 5.